This month’s post examines a lesser-known aspect about American inter-racial relations: sundown towns. Similar in theme to my post on being melungeion, this essay honors the memory of George Floyd and celebrates Black History Month .
What Are Sundown Towns?
The definition of a sundown town derives from its name. Also known as sunset towns, gray towns or sundowner towns according to Wikipedia, the term refers to those all-white communities in the United States that practiced a form of racial segregation that excluded non-whites through discriminatory local laws, discrimination, or violence.
Most prevalent before the 1950s, the expression applied to signs that directed ‘colored people’ to leave the vicinity before sundown. Though primarily restricted to towns and small communities, the limitations declared by such signs served suburbs and counties as well. While applied primarily to the black community, such signs aided in excluding many other minority groups as well such as Native Americans, Asians, Latinos, Jews, and Catholics.
History of Sundown Towns
The backstory of the term predates the establishment of the United States. As early as 1714, the province of New Hampshire passed “An Act to Prevent Disorders in the Night.” The practice coincided with the expansion of America settlements across the continent. Laws and signs restricting black immigration appeared in Illinois, Ohio, Michigan, and Iowa well into the 1850s.
However, the establishment of sundown towns reached its zenith with the imposition of Jim Crow laws during and after post-Civil War Reconstruction in 1877. Other related practices such as redlining restricted minority choices were to live and work throughout the first half of the twentieth century.
Only with the rise of the civil rights movement during the 1950s and 1960s did discriminatory laws begin to disappear. And, it was only with the passage of the Fair Housing Act of 1968 which prohibited racial discrimination in the sale, rental and financing of housing that sundown towns finally began to disappear. Even then, de facto sundown towns continued to exist until the 1980s.
Sundown Towns in the 21st Century
These developments enabled sociologist Heather O’Connell to declare in 2019 that sundown towns are “(primarily) a thing of the past.” However, sociologist and historian James W. Loewen adopted the contrarian viewpoint by declaring that few out of the hundreds of communities that are or had been sundown communities kept official records of such ordinances. Moreover, he noted the persisting effects of sundown towns’ violently enforced segregation even after they had been integrated to a small degree.
Loewen’s assessment concurs with the sociological assessment of Minneapolis during the 2010s when it was revealed that realtors still engaged in redlining neighborhoods based on race and ethnicity. Long a a de facto insturment in the confining blacks to the north side of the city, the practice served as one of many undercurrents that resulted in the murder of George Floyd mentioned above.
Sundown Towns in Media
Unsurprisingly, the topic serves as thematic fodder for a variety of books, plays, and films. Below are listed some of the more prominent examplies depicting the concept:
- Breakfast of Champions, written by Kurt Vonnegut
- The Fugitive Kind, directed by Sydney Lumet
- Gentlemen’s Agreement, directed by Elia Kazan
- Green Book, directed by Peter Farrelly
- I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, written by Maya Angelou
- Lovecraft Country, directed by Misha Green
- Naked Lunch, written by William Burroughs
Concluding Thoughts
The topic of sundown towns remains a controversial one, to say the least. As Loewen stated above, few municipalities mainstained or are willing to admit they once posted signs and ordinances restricting the appearance of minorities in their communities after sundown. A Wikipedia entry lists towns which adopted these discriminatory measures. In addition, The History of Social Justice website contains a datebase on the topic as well. But, a quick examination of the entries in both sources shows that the “Don’t Know” response dominates most entries under the category of “Sundown Town in the Past?”
Consequently, some readers may question whether such revelations about a town’s history are beneficial or harmful. Doesn’t such exposure serve only to reopen the wound and retraumatize the victims?
Perhaps.
But until researching this topic, I neveer had heard of the term, much less comprehended the scope of the issue, an issue which persists in disguised ways. Therefore, it remains imperative to reveal another unpleasant aspect of the underbelly of American culture. In an era when dissension and otherness grow increasingly suspect and punishable, doesn’t it behoove us to be cognizant of how and why we got this way?
What do you think? Let me know in the Contact form below.
This throw-in is one of the finalists in my best of William Fietzer newsletter competition. My bias may be showing, but how could anyone resist showing a photo of these two tricksters?
Interestingly, the first approach came from an alleged reading group came from a library in Glasgow, Scotland. The scammer said all the right things, how much he admired my book, 
Many people, myself included, first heard the concept of plausible deniability in association with right-wing political activist, 
Although the concept may have existed throughout human history as the Wikipedia entry claims, it never received formal recognition until Charles Babbage described it in his Ninth Bridgwater Treatise. There he depicted it as a deceitful but common political process whereby committee members could maintain deniability regarding sensitive or unethical decisions. It required “a few simply honest men” on a committee who could be conveniently, and temporarily, dismissed when a “peculiarly delicate question” arose. In that way, one of those absent members could “declare truly, if necessary, that he “never was present at any meeting at which even a questionable course had been proposed.”
This abstract concept lay dormant until 1948. Then, a series of National Security Council (NSC) papers defined “covert operations” committed in behalf of the U.S. government “are so planned and executed that … if uncovered the US Government can plausibly disclaim any responsibility for them.” Later on In 1952, Central Intelligence Agency (CIA( Director 
Perhaps if the conceiver of the
That is what we have here. Originally, this blog post intended to deal with stressed individuals’ growing use of AI and Chatbots instead of human professionals for emotional and psychiatric treatment. (More on that below). However, in the process of developing that narrative, one thing became quite apparent. Despite my previous blog on the related topic of the
Yet, whatever the brilliance of Faukner’s Quentin Compson or King’s Carrie White characterizations, their fictional progenitor has to be 
The historical relevance of this literary correlation now seems more applicable. As in 17th-century Russia, the adoption of new ways of thinking and acting are seldom affable. In times of great cultural upheaval such as ours, adherence or reversion to the old ways is an inevitable expression of conscience for some. For others, it justifies the cruelty and persecution meted out to those who differ from themselves, whether culturally, ethnically, or intellectually.
These issues and more formed the basis of Culinary Institute of America food historian 
Prof. Forrest’s pre-dinner presentation provided an overview of the food items available to the average american’s palette. Sugar and salt were scare commodities at this time, so cooks emphasized the savory side through local herbs and animal fat. Sorghum, nuts, and berries formed the basis of most desserts.
Colonial Foodstuffs and the Columbian Exchange
Last Saturdaky, Journalism won the Preakness Stakes. Almost immediately, racing touts wondered whether he and Sovereignty, the Kentucky Derby winner, would have a rematch in the Belmont Stakes, the last leg of thoroughbred racing’s 
The treatament of horses in thoroughbred racing long has been subsumed under the rubric of animal welfare in this country.
Did you know the British poet 
Are there any perks associated with being a grandparent?At first glance, It seemed doubtful to this Baby Boomer. Oh sure, everybody says they welcome taking care of the grandkids in hopes of witnessing their first smiles. But as they grow up, those moments dwindle in significance compared to our expressions of relief when our babysitting obligaations are over.
Memories come in many forms and provoke a variety of emotions. As instanced above, not all of them need be sentimental or heart-warming. A recent study by researchers from the University of Buffalo and Kyoto University found that nostalgic people may be more inclined to strengthen and maintain long-term relationships than those who aren’t. The reason why: when people reminisce about the good times spent with loved ones, they appreciate them more and strive to maintain those relationships. According to study co-author Kuan Ju-Huang, this means that those positive attachments “may be more likely to last, even as our lives, interests, and responsibilities change.”
Perks of Grandparenting: Acquisition
Since the presidential inauguration, Trump 2.0 has proven as threatening and dangerous to our values and freedoms as he promised. Political pundits categorize it as a hostile takeover, government readjustment, or a coup. Whatever one calls it, the times are not a-changing for the better. Rather, they are provoking people’s flight-or-fight responses. In short, they evoke all the symptoms of W. H. Auden‘s 
Get Involved
These observations arise from the convictions of a confirmed Baby Boomer who experienced the divisiveness caused by the Viet Nam War. My rebelliousness then stemmed from my countercultural attitude toward the social mores of the political establishment. The irony is not lost on me that despite my convicitions remaining the same, I now must defend that culture’s values, constraints, and instituions. That’s how instutionally powerful conservative America has become over the past 60 years.
This tip elaborates on what appears above. Just as writers slant their stories to the values, interests, and expectations of their readerships, power panelists direct their responses toward the topic at hand with their audience in mind. Does it consist primarily of writers or academics? Or is it composed primarily of readers and fantasy fans?
For some panel members, this tip may contradict the concept of a panel discussion, i.e. a discussion among the members of a panel. Regardless of that, some of the best discussions I’ve witnessed resulted from questions or observations contributed by the audience. If a topic is provocative enough in itself, or if the panel discussion of it is sufficiently free-flowing and involving, such discussion conduces a dialog between the panel and its listeners. Not only does such involvement measure a power panelist and a panel’s success as entertainers, it liberates creative ideas panel members may never have considered.
This point may be in the convention guidelines, but it bears repeating. Power panelists respect the ideas and beliefs of all participants, panelists and audience members alike. To facilitate that respect, the moderator should lay out the ground rules before the start of discussion. Most often, that means reigning in those individuals whose enthusiasm for a particular topic overwhelms their inhibitions and consideration for others.
Like other film goers of the Boomer generation, I cut my movie-going teeth on adventure films like the Star Wars trilogy and (especially) Indiana Jones. Though they basically contain B-movie plots given A-list treatments, their over-the-top audacity and sheer enthusiasm made up for any shortcomings in probability or plot construction.
But is this “
Artificial Intelligence (AI) already affects writers and the publishing industry. However, the recent release of ChatGPT threatens authors’ livelihoods on a whole new level. In a 
itemizes the opportunities AI offers in terms of acquisitiion, production, and marketing. In his view, AI could depose Amazon, the over-charging, 800-pound gorilla in the publishing industry. While independent publishers like him might welcome the overthrow of their competition, individual entrepreneurs, writers, and artists could find themselves shoved further down down the publicity and marketing chain. McElroy’s analysis is astute, but relies heavily on his approach of book publishing being an information-dispensing industry.
As individuals, people respond to differIent stimuli differently. 
binder for my proposed work, Black Phantom. The binder remained empty for years, however, because I had no access to horses of any kind. Finally, when the chance to ride one did happen, I clung to the saddle horn for all I was worth while the horse galloped back to its stall for a fresh bucket of oats. However, the action, the adventure, the thrill of that incident stayed with me. Like Farley’s narrative of a boy’s enduring love for his horse, these qualities inspired the path I’ve chosen these many decades later.
For these individuals and the people inspired by them, “good enough” is not acceptable. Publishing information remains limited to the 
Melungeon–a particular yet ominous-sounding word which happens to rhyme with dungeon in English. Sometimes spelled malungeon or melongeon, the term has several meanings. The broadest of these, according to 
The reason for my interest in the appelation is two-fold. First, my father’s side of the family perpetuated the notion that our dark complections and brown eyes stemmed from our Cherokee heritage. Second, my research into the background of country-western singer 
In your reading, did you discover media you can trust? Do they cite their sources and check their facts? Or do such constraints seem to get in the way of a good story, convincing opinion, or solid argument?
Down the Rabbit Hole
OK. At this point, case closed. Or is it? One instance appears on the BBC News web page, the other on the web page of a “leading free market think tank.” Both sources for these links appear reliable, but consider the context in which these articles appear. The BBC is government-owned entity renowned for being “the world’s oldest newscaster” according to Wikipedia; MI or the Manhattan Institute, formerly the 
objective evaluation of the issue? My procedure: when in doubt in the 21st century, conduct a Google search. The first result of a “media bias” search turned up 
MBFC is only one of several sites devoted to information objectivity and bias-identification. Many media experts regard 
What Is the Rule of Three?
Examples
Expressions and Catchphrases: 
What It All Comes Down To
#1 
